The Merriam-Webster defines “Thanatology” as “the description or study of the phenomena of death and of psychological mechanisms for coping with them.” Buddhism has a great deal to say about death and hence it will be beneficial to discuss everything that Buddhism has to say about the phenomenon of death under the term “Buddhist thanatology.” Prince Siddhārtha might not have become a buddha had he not witnessed death. What is death? What are the causes of death? What are the signs of death? What is the Māra of Death? Can one overcome death? How can one overcome death? Who can overcome death? What is deathlessness? Is there such a state called immortality? Is immortality desirable? What is command over the span of life? What happens during the death? What happens after the death? How should one deal with the dead? What are the procedures and rites and rituals connected with death? What is a ’das log? What is “buying” or “cheating” death? There may be many more issues that can be discussed under this term “Buddhist Thanatology.”
(Personal blog of Dorji Wangchuk (Kuliśeśvara) for philosophical reflection, speculation, and deliberation)
Sunday, February 8, 2015
Saturday, February 7, 2015
Buddhist Deontology
The term “deontology” is said to be derived from
Greek deon “obligation, duty” and logia “discourse.” Deontology
(or deontological ethics) is said to be “the normative ethical position that
judges the morality of an action based on the action’s adherence to a rule or
rules. It is sometimes described as ‘duty’ or ‘obligation’ or ‘rule’-based
ethics, because rules ‘bind you to your duty.’ Deontological ethics is commonly
contrasted to consequentialism, virtue ethics, and pragmatic ethics. In this
terminology action is more important than the consequences” (Wikipedia).
The question for me is whether we can speak of “Buddhist deontology.” I feel
that we can speak of “Buddhist deontology,” particularly in the Mahāyāna
context, insofar as Buddhism accepts that the rightness or wrongness (or
perhaps better, in the Buddhist context, the wholesomeness or unwholesomeness
or neutrality) of one’s verbal and physical conduct is determined by the
wholesome, unwholesome, or neutral character or nature of the behavior itself
rather than the outcomes of the conduct. Two related arguments seem to support
the fact in Buddhism even if the action carried out of a compassionate motive
or intention turns out to harm other people, it would nonetheless be considered
wholesome.
We are told by some that Kantanism (or Immanuel
Kant’s theory of ethics) is deontological for at least two different reasons:
First, Kant has argued that to act in the morally right way, people must act
from duty (deon). Second, Kant has argued that it was not the
consequences of actions that make them right or wrong but the motives of the
person who carries out the action.
Kant’s first argument that to act in the morally
right way, people must act from duty (deon) is said to be based on the
argument that the highest good must be both good in itself and good without
qualification. Does this argument make any sense from the perspective of
Buddhist axiology? Not being sure if Kant’s position has been represented
accurately, it is difficult to say. What does seem questionable is the idea of
“duty” in Buddhism. Does it exist in Buddhism and what does it mean? On the one
hand, prima facie, at least, we might get an impression that in Buddhism no one
is obliged to do anything for anyone, and thus the idea of duty in the sense of
obligation simply makes no sense. Such an impression is perhaps created by the
fact that Buddhism proposes karmic mechanism and presupposes what Srinivasan
has once called Heilsprivatismus (“Salvific Privatism”), which
means that each person is responsible for his or her this-worldly or
other-worldly mundane destiny and also for one’s soteriological destiny. Whatever
one does, one does so out of self-responsibility and not on account of one’s
obligation or responsibility towards others. What about one’s duty towards
one’s parents, family, and the like? One may perhaps state that this is nothing
specifically Buddhistic but rather a societal norm accepted by the society at
large. One might thus argue that duty is akin to a penalty and it robs one’s
personal freedom to choose and decide. Thus the very word “duty” sounds
somewhat contrarious to the Buddhist pattern of thinking. On the other hand, it
should be emphasized that Buddhist axiology does prescribe
ethical-moral-ascetical commitment and responsibility. Although “duty” or
“obligation” may be synonymous to “commitment,” the latter term seems more
appropriate in the Buddhist context. The basic idea here is that although one
is not obliged to do anything for anyone, one does have the complete freedom to
commit oneself to do something or not to something. But once one has taken a
commitment upon oneself, one is usually bound by one’s commitment. Even here,
one take full responsibility for keeping or breaking one’s commitment. This
distinction, in my view, seems crucial. For a person who has not committed
himself or herself to refrain from killing, abstaining from killing a human
being out of maliciousness is not a duty. For a person who has committed
himself or herself to refrain from killing, abstaining from killing a human
being out of maliciousness is a duty.
Kant’s idea of “good in itself and good without
qualification” seems to be reconcilable with the Buddhist idea of certain
mental factors/associates (caitta: sems las byung ba) that are by nature
wholesome (ngo bo nyid kyis dge ba).
By the way, its opposite, those that are by nature unwholesome (ngo bo nyid kyis mi dge ba), too, is
possible in Buddhism. If to (re)formulate Kant’s argument in Abhidharmic terms,
it would be thus: “To act in the ethically-morally right way, people must act
with wholesome mental factors (dge ba’i sems byung).” Better still: “Any
action carried out with wholesome mental factors (dge ba’i sems byung) is ethically/morally right.”
Kant’s second reason, in my view, seems to
be ad sensum same as the first argument and thus both
arguments seem readily acceptable from a Buddhist perspective. This is also the
reason why I think Buddhist axiology proposes deontological ethics.
What would a Buddhist philosopher think of
Kant’s categorical imperative? “Act only according to that maxim by which you
can also will that it would become a universal law.” I think it would be found
laudable and endorsable. I have a feeling that the Mahāyānic values crystalized
in the six kinds of perfections (pāramitā: pha rol tu phyin pa) imply
categorical imperative.
Does Buddhist axiology propose “moral
absolutism,” according to which certain actions are absolutely right or wrong,
regardless of the intentions behind them as well as the consequences? From a
Buddhist perspective, it would seem that the very idea of “moral absolutism”
(i.e. if what I read is what it says) seems to be based on the presupposition
(or rather on the misconception) that there is an intention-free action.
Action, deed, or exertion in Buddhism must be volitional. Action is not a
motivation-free or intention-free motion. The rustling of dry leaves in the
wind is not an action. One may, however, conceive of a Buddhist version of
“moral absolutism,” according to which certain mental actions are absolutely
right or wrong, regardless of their consequences. In other words, a unwholesome
mental action is always and absolutely wrong, and a wholesome mental action is
always and absolutely right.
On the one hand, the so-called “Divine Command
Theory,” according to which “an action is right if God has decreed that it is
right” would be deprecated by a Buddhist philosopher as utterly nonsensical
because it would be tantamount to stating that “an action is right if the Son
of a Barren Woman (or Rabbit’s Horn) has decreed that it is right.” On the
other hand, Buddhist sources classify misdeeds that are considered by nature
unwholesome and thus by nature reproachable (prakṛtisāvadya: rang bzhin gyi
kha na ma tho ba) and those that are reproachable in virtue of prohibition
or decree (pratikṣepaṇasāvadya, also rendered into Tibetan as bcas
pa’i kha na ma tho ba). The question here is to find something to be
“reproachable” by whom? The answer is: a wise person (e.g. the Buddha). A
fool’s judgment of something as “reproachable” or “irreproachable” is not
valid.
Thursday, February 5, 2015
Buddhist Kalology
“Buddhist
Kalology” may be defined here as the Buddhist concept or theory of beauty, and
may be seen as a branch of Buddhist axiology (dealing with aesthetic values).
https://sites.google.com/site/nygamma/home/kalology
Tuesday, February 3, 2015
Buddhist Killology or Cideology
Killology is said to be “the study of the
psychological and physiological effects of killing and combat on the human
psyche” and the term is said to have been coined by the retired Lt. Col. Dave
Grossman (US Army). Perhaps I may be the first person to try to employ the word
“killology” in a Buddhist context. I would, however, propose to define
“Buddhist Killology” (or perhaps better “Buddhist Cideology,” from French -cide,
from Latin cida “cutter, killer”) as a “scholarly study of the
Buddhist attitude towards the act of killing.” For the sake of discussing the
Buddhist attitude toward killing, one might primarily consider those x-cide words.
To be noted is that an x-cide word usually mean one of these
four things: (a) “killing x,” where x is an
animate or sentient being (e.g. matricide), (b) “killing through or by means of
x,” where x is often a tangible entity (e.g. autocide),(c) “a
kind of substance that is used to kill x,” where x is often a
nuisance-causing and hence unwanted small creature such as bug or vermin (e.g.
German Ungetier and Ungeziefer) (e.g. pesticide),
or (d) the act of destroying x (literarily or figuratively),
where x is usually an inanimate and intangible entity (e.g.
chronocide “the killing or wasting of time,” famacide “the killing of another’s
reputation, a slander,” liberticide “the destruction of liberties, linguicide
“intentionally causing the death of a language,” and libricide “the destruction
of books and libraries mainly with a religious or political ideology”). Our
main concern in this context would be x-cide in the first
sense.
Some random points may be made in this
regard. First of all, killing may be defined by Buddhist sources as a physical
act of the destruction or cutting (short) of or putting an abrupt end to life
or life-faculty (jīvendriya: srog gi dbang po) of a sentient being.
Naturally therefore the issue of what is sentient is crucial in Buddhism.
Lambert Schmithausen’s study of the issue of sentiency of plants in Buddhism
should be presupposed here. According to him and if I remember correctly,
Buddhists in the beginning were reticent about the sentiency of plants and
that plants were considered borderline cases by them but in course of time,
they decided in favor of the in-sentiency of plants. In other words, according
to Buddhism, plants may be considered living things but not living or sentient
beings. Killing here thus refers to only killing of sentient beings.
Second, killing, being a physical or bodily act
or deed in Buddhism, can never be considered categorically or
apodictically unwholesome, wholesome, or neutral, although most acts or
deeds of killing would be committed through motives tinged by
intellectual-emotional defilements (kleśa: nyon mongs pa) such as
desire, hatred, greed, jealousy, and so forth, and thus considered
unwholesome ethically, morally, spiritually (or ascetically), and karmically
(or legally). The most decisive factor is thus the wholesomeness,
unwholesomeness, or neutrality of the preceding, accompanying, or concluding volitional
impulse or motivation of the main agent of the act of killing. I specify here
“main agent” to exclude a “commissioned killer” (who may be mostly considered
an instrument of killing). A “commissioned killer” may or may
not be an accomplice in the volitionary act of killing. The
equivocality or equivocacy of the act of killing in terms of ethical,
moral, spiritual (or ascetic), and karmic positivity, negativity, or
neutrality, makes the act of killing one of the greatest challenges in Buddhist
philosophy. I may have killed a person and claim that I did it out of pure
compassion and benevolence. I may have killed a person out of pure
hatred and maliciousness. I may have killed someone in the course of a
sleep-walking. Can one, who can, and how can one determine the positivity,
negativity, or neutrality of the motive behind an act of killing and thus
judge accordingly as wholesome, unwholesome, and neutral?
Third, one may classify types of killing in
several ways. Killing may be classified based on (a) the kind of species of
sentient being killed (e.g. homicide “killing of a human being”), (b) the
killer’s family and other relationship with the victim (i.e. matricide and
patricide), (c) spiritual or social status (e.g. regicide “the killing of a
monarch”), (d) ways of killing (i.e. capital punishment “the judicial killing
of a human being for odious crimes” and euthanasia (also mercy killing) “the
killing of any being for compassionate reasons i.e. significant injury or
disease,” and so on. But perhaps all types of killing maybe subsumed
under suicide (i.e. intentional killing oneself) and paracide (i.e.
intentional killing of other sentient beings). For suicide, see q.v. Buddhist
Suicidology.
Fourth, the gravity of the act of killing and
thus also the karmic (or legal) accountability for it would be determined by a
number of factors. Some of such factors presupposed in Buddhism seem to be (a)
the size of physical size of a sentient being (e.g. it is not the same killing
an ant and an elephant), (b) number of sentient beings (e.g. whether one
kills one cow or a thousand cows), (c) the frequency (e.g. whether
one kills a sentient being once or regularly), (d) the intensity or extensity
of preceding, accompanying, and concluding volitional impulse, (e) the degree
or extent to which the victim happens to be a guṇakṣetra (yon
tan gyi zhing) or puṇyakṣetra (bsod nams kyi
zhing), that is, even among human beings it would depend whether the victim
is a parent, patient, saint, and the like.
In Buddhism, I doubt that a human being can kill
a celestial being (i.e. god) and hence deicide would be, according to Buddhism,
an impossibility. Similarly, Buddhocide (i.e. “the killing of the Buddha
or a buddha”) would be an impossibility. Nobody can ever kill the
Buddha or a buddha! To be noted is that not everyone who is said to
possess the Buddha (or Buddhomorphic) Element (buddhadhātu: sangs rgyas kyi
khams) can be considered a buddha. Perhaps
hagiocide (i.e. killing of a saint), however, is possible insofar as one may be
able to kill an arhant or a bodhisattva would
get killed. The killing of Tibetan king ’U-dum-btsan may be regarded by Tibetan
Buddhists as tyrannicide (i.e. “the killing of a tyrant”), which would be
theoretically endorsable. Self-immolation (i.e. suicide by setting oneself on
fire, a form of extreme protest), like any other form of suicide or paracide,
is subject to equivocality. From a Buddhist point, there would be nothing
honorable about the so-called “honor killing” (i.e. the act of killing a family
member who has or was perceived to have brought disgrace to the family) would
be categorically and apodictically considered reproachable and dishonorable.
What about judicial killing? Judicial system is a worldly system and Buddhism
(initially and mainly as a discipline of attaining release from the bondage
of saṃsāra) would not normally lay down legal systems for the
society unless a king or a country happens to follow Buddhist teachings. Some
Buddhists may even see a country’s law a kind of jungle’s law and would only
hope that people in the jungle would not unjustly send one to the gallows. To
change a political or legal system of a country, lay and ordained Buddhist
community would have to meddle into and muddle in the dirty waters of politics.
One would be free to do so if one can and will but would that be the raison
d’être of Buddhist teachings in the first place? What about
Euthanasia? Difficult! How can one ensure and be sure that “mercy killing” is
indeed merciful and beneficial? Buddhism is bound to view the very intent of
genocide (i.e. the systematic extermination of an entire national, racial,
religious, or ethnic group) and particularly omnicide (i.e. the act of killing
all humans, to create intentional extinction of the human species) heinous. How
might Buddhism view human sacrifice (i.e. the killing of a human for religious
reasons)? Perhaps it would be viewed as a practice based on completely
erroneous views. What about dominicide (i.e. the act of killing one’s
(Buddhist) master? It would be usually viewed very negatively. What about
episcopicide (i.e. the act of killing a bishop) or vaticide (i.e. the act of
killing a prophet)? It may depend on what kind of person that particular bishop
or prophet is. If he or she happens to be a person who spreads religion of hate
and destruction, a bodhisattva or tāntrika might
consider “liberating” him or her. If he or she happens to contribute to
compassion, insight, happiness, and peace in the world, episcopicide and
vaticide would be a heinous crime.
Saturday, January 31, 2015
Disanalogy in Buddhist Philosophy
Disanalogy (i.e. dpe med pa) does
not seem to be recorded by Merriam-Webster but by Collins. It is said to mean
“a lack of analogy.” If we somehow assume that “analogy” is semantically
coextensive with Tibetan dpe (dṛṣṭānta), which can also
mean an “instance” or a “case,” or “exemplification” then one
might speak of “disanalogy” in Buddhist philosophy. The Mādhyamikas have argued
that one of the reasons why “reality” or “essentiality” or “substantiality” or
“hypostatic existence” of an entity or phenomenon can never be proven because
there is not a single dpe (“analogy,” “case,” or “instance”)
of an entity or phenomenon or any given that is “real,” “substantial,”
“essential” or “hypostatically existent.” A single dpe of an hypostatically
existent entity would undermine or topple the entire Madhyamaka theory of
emptiness. The Mādhyamikas would claim that all reasons that are put
forward to refute the Madhyamaka philosophy of emptiness are actually
ineffectual in achieving their objectives but would consolidate the
Madhyamaka position. All reasons employed by the critics of Madhyamaka are
like additional fuel that causes the Madhyamaka fire to burn even more
brightly. Nāgārjuna, Śāntideva, and the like should be cited. In this
connection, consider Mi-pham’s: chos gcig bden par grub na de nyid kyis
|| chos kun snang ba gtan nas ’gog ’gyur phyir || gcig kyang bden pa med pa’i
nges shes kyis || mtha’ bral dbu ma’i lam bzang ….
A few more points come to my mind. First, we also have to bear in mind that there is mthun dpe as well as mi mthun pa’i dpe (i.e. a kind of opposite case, counter-example, or counter-analogy). Second, a formally correct and complete syllogism is said to require a mthun dpe, that is, regardless of whether or not the proponent needs to demonstrate it to the qualified opponent. Third, I have encountered several intelligent and well-educated lay Buddhists in Europe who have problems with classical dpe used in Buddhist sources. One of the most common remarks is that a dpe, because of its dissimilarity with the don, often does not apply. To this, I have been trying to point out a few things. (a) In an Indian or Buddhist philosophical context, a dpe must primarily work for the qualified dialogue or debate partner. If a dpe is unknown (or makes no sense) to the opponent or partner, the proponent should not use it. (b) Usually The kind of dpe employed need not exist as a (concrete) particular entity. A dpe is usually an abstract concept of an entity or a non-entity. Thus, one can use “pot” (bum pa) as a dpe or “a rabbit’s horn.” (c) Importantly, the exemplifying dpe should never be totally similar to the to-be-exemplified don (meaning). If it does, it would not function as a dpe. A dpe is usually employed because of its at least one shared quality or similarity with the don. Therefore, it would be absolutely correct to the employ “rabbit’s horn” as a dpe in the following syllogism: A “pot,” if analyzed or ultimately, would turn out to be non-arisen just like a “rabbit’s horn.” Now in this case, the argument that “rabbit’s horn” cannot be employed as a dpe because of its dissimilarity with the “pot” would not be valid and the objection simply suggests that the opponent does not actually know the rules of the dialogue/debate. If both parties see the quality or attribute of being non-arisen in both “pot” and “rabbit’s horn,” that would suffice. (d) Perhaps the difficulty lies in the use of the word “analogy” itself. The idea of analogy in the Western intellectual culture is perhaps more rigid than the idea of dpe (dṛṣṭānta) in Indian Buddhist intellectual culture. One must, however, note that even in the Buddhist contexts, dpe could be used loosely and non-technically or narrowly and technically. Perhaps one may state dpe (dṛṣṭānta) in Buddhist context may be used on a micro or individual level (i.e. one dpe for a single don) on a macro or over-all level (i.e. a series of dpes for a series of dons). The dpe (dṛṣṭānta) thus may include analogy, allegory, and any kind of comparison and exemplification.
Subscribe to:
Posts (Atom)